Return and Retreat in a Transnational World: Insights from Eritrea
DOI :
https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.40849Mots-clés :
return, repatriation, Eritrea, refugees, disaspora, citizenship, transnational livelihoodsRésumé
Lorsque l'accès des réfugiés aux droits économiques, politiques et sociaux ne peut être garanti dans une localité, les individus font des choix pragmatiques concernant les relations à entretenir avec les autorités ailleurs, même avec celles qui ont causé leur fuite en premier lieu. Ce processus de retour est rarement comparable à un rapatriement conventionnel, compris comme le rétablissement complet des droits et responsabilités associés à la citoyenneté (Bradley, 2013). Dans cet article, les auteures proposent plutôt le concept de retraite (retreat) pour rendre compte du processus initié par ceux qui cherchent à échapper à un déplacement prolongé par un retour partiel à leur pays d'origine et par lequel les individus espèrent pouvoir rassembler de multiples sources de droits à travers plusieurs lieux. S’appuyant sur de la recherche ethnographique récente en Érythrée, les auteures analysent les histoires d’individus, pour la plupart réfugiés, qui ont décidé de se retirer malgré l’absence de changement politique. Ni exclusivement citoyens ni réfugiés dans le pays d’origine ou d’asile, la position socio-juridique « doublement absente » des participants est analysée dans cet article. Les auteures montrent qu’elle repose sur des formes de citoyenneté stratifiées ainsi que sur la nature relationnelle des divers droits et statuts et soutiennent que cette position doit être reconnue comme une dynamique supplémentaire dans la littérature sur la fuite, le retour et la citoyenneté transnationale.
Statistiques
Références
Ajibade, I., Sullivan, M., & Haeffner, M. (2020). Why climate migration is not managed retreat: Six justifications. Global Environmental Change, 65, Article 102187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2020.102187
Al-Ali, N., Black, R., & Koser, K. (2001). Refugees and transnationalism: The experience of Bosnians and Eritreans in Europe. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 615–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830120090412
Amnesty International. (2015, December 2). Just deserters: Why indefinite national service in Eritrea has created a generation of refugees. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/afr64/2930/2015/en/
Arnone, A. (2011). Tourism and the Eritrean diaspora. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 29(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/02589001.2011.603211
Bakewell, O. (2002). Returning refugees or migrating villagers? Voluntary repatriation programmes in Africa reconsidered. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 21(1/2), 42–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/21.1_and_2.42
Banks, R. (2015). The potential and limitations of the Court of Justice of the European Union in shaping international refugee law. International Journal of Refugee Law, 27(2), 213–244. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eev020
Barry, K. (2006). Home and away: The construction of citizenship in an emigration context. New York University Law Review, 81(1), 11–59. https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/6_1.pdf
Bascom, J. (2005). The long, “last step”? Reintegration of repatriates in Eritrea. Journal of Refugee Studies, 18(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1093/refuge/fei019
Bauböck, R. (2009). The rights and duties of external citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 13(5), 475–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621020903174647
Bauböck, R. (2010). Studying citizenship constellations. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(5), 847–859. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691831003764375
Belloni, M. (2019). The big gamble: The migration of Eritreans to Europe. University of California Press.
Belloni, M. (2021). Remittance houses and transnational citizenship: Mapping Eritrea’s diaspora–state relationships. Africa Spectrum, 56(1), 59–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/00020397211003101
Bereketeab, R. (2007). The Eritrean diaspora: Myth and reality. In U. Johansson Dahre (Ed.), The role of diasporas in peace, democracy and development in the Horn of Africa (pp. 79–108). Lund University Press. http://sirclund.se/wp/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/conference-report-2006.pdf
Black, R. (2002). Conceptions of “home” and the political geography of refugee repatriation: Between assumption and contested reality in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Applied Geography, 22(2), 123–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0143-6228(02)00003-6
Black, R., & Koser, K. (Eds.). (1999). The end of the refugee cycle? Refugee repatriation and reconstruction. Berghahn Books.
Bozzini, D. M. (2013). The catch-22 of resistance: Jokes and the political imagination of Eritrean conscripts. Africa Today, 60(2), 39–64. https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.60.2.39
Bradley, M. (2013). Refugee repatriation: Justice, responsibility and redress. Cambridge University Press.
Brighenti, A. M. (2016). Urban interstices: The aesthetics and the politics of the in-between. Routledge.
Choo, H. Y. (2006). Gendered modernity and ethnicized citizenship: North Korean settlers in contemporary South Korea. Gender & Society, 20(5), 576–604. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243206291412
Cole, G. (2016). Beyond the politics of labelling: Exploring the cessation clauses for Rwandan and Eritrean refugees through semiotics [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Oxford.
Cole, G. (2018). Questioning the value of “refugee” status and its primary vanguard: The case of Eritreans in Uganda (RSC Working Paper Series 124). University of Oxford Refugee Studies Centre. https://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/publications/questioning-the-value-of-refugee-status-and-its-primary-vanguard-the-case-of-eritreans-in-uganda
Cole, G. (2019a). Systemic ambivalence in authoritarian contexts: The case of opinion formation in Eritrea. Political Geography, 73, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2019.05.003
Cole, G. (2019b). Working with “stayee” communities: Learning from Eritrea. Forced Migration Review, 62, 17–19. https://www.fmreview.org/fr/node/5088
Cole, G. (2020). Choiceless Departments and Involuntary Immobility: Forced Migration from the Gulf States to Africa (IRRI Policy Paper Series). http://refugee-rights.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/IRRI-Policy-Paper-Series-Forced-Migration-Gulf-to-Africa-Sept-2020.pdf
Collyer, M., & King, R. (2015). Producing transnational space: International migration and the extra-territorial reach of state power. Progress in Human Geography, 39(2), 185–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/0309132514521479
De Certeau, M., Jameson, F., & Lovitt, C. (1980). On the oppositional practices of everyday life. Social Text, 3, 3–43. https://doi.org/10.2307/466341
Faist, T. (2000). Transnationalization in international migration: Implications for the study of citizenship and culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(2), 189–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/014198700329024
Fox, J. (2005). Unpacking “transnational citizenship.” Annual Review of Political Science, 8, 171–201. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.7.012003.104851
Fresia, M. (2014). Performing repatriation? The role of refugee aid in shaping new beginnings in Mauritania. Development and Change, 45(3), 434–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/dech.12086
Glasius, M. (2018). Extraterritorial authoritarian practices: A framework. Globalizations, 15(2), 179–197. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2017.1403781
Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2019). Ethnography: Principles in practice. Routledge.
Hammond, L. (1999). Examining the discourse of repatriation: Towards a more proactive theory of return migration. In R. Black & K. Koser (Eds.), The end of the refugee cycle? Refugee repatriation and reconstruction (pp. 227–244). Berghahn Books.
Hammond, L. C. (2018). This place will become home: Refugee repatriation to Ethiopia. Cornell University Press.
Hansen, P. (2007). Revolving returnees: Meanings and practices of transnational return among Somalilanders [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Copenhagen.
Harild, N. V., Christensen, A., & Zetter, R. W. (2015). Sustainable refugee return: Triggers, constraints, and lessons on addressing the development challenges of forced displacement (GPFD Issue Note Series No. 99618). World Bank. http://hdl.handle.net/10986/22751
Hathaway, J. C. (2007). Refugee solutions, or solutions to refugeehood? Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees, 24(2), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.21378
Hepner, T. M. R. (2009). Soldiers, martyrs, traitors, and exiles: Political conflict in Eritrea and the diaspora. University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hepner, T. R. (2015). Generation nationalism and generation asylum: Eritrean migrants, the global diaspora, and the transnational nation-state. Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 18(1-2), 184–207. https://doi.org/10.3138/diaspora.18.1-2.184
Hirt, N., & Saleh Mohammad, A. (2018). By way of patriotism, coercion, or instrumentalization: How the Eritrean regime makes use of the diaspora to stabilize its rule. Globalizations, 15(2), 232–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2017.1294752
Janoski, T., & Gran, B. (2002). Political citizenship: Foundations of rights. In E. Isin & B. Turner (Eds.), Handbook of citizenship studies (pp. 13–53). Sage Publications.
Kibreab, G. (2003). Citizenship rights and repatriation of refugees. International Migration Review, 37(1), 24–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00129.x
Kivisto, P., & Faist, T. (2007). Citizenship: Discourse, theory, and transnational prospects. Blackwell Publishing.
Klekowski von Koppenfels, A. (2019). The disinterested state: Negative diasporic policy as an expression of state inclusion and national exclusion. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(4), 595–612. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1409173
Kusenbach, M. (2003). Street phenomenology: The go-along as ethnographic research tool. Ethnography, 4(3), 455–485. https://doi.org/10.1177/146613810343007
Ley, D., & Kobayashi, A. (2005). Back to Hong Kong: Return migration or transnational sojourn? Global Networks, 5(2), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2005.00110.x
Long, K. (2013). The point of no return: Refugees, rights, and repatriation. Oxford University Press.
Long, K. (2016). Rethinking “durable” solutions. In E. Fiddian-Qasmiyeh, G. Loescher, K. Long, & N. Sigona (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of refugee and forced migration studies (pp. 475–488). Oxford University Press.
Lucht, H., & Mengiste, T. A. (2020, November 6). Eritrean refugees struggle after the peace agreement with Ethiopia. DIIS Policy Brief. https://www.diis.dk/en/research/eritrean-refugees-struggle-after-the-peace-agreement-with-ethiopia
Mohammad, A. S. (2021). The resurgence of religious and ethnic identities among Eritrean refugees: A response to the government’s nationalist ideology. Africa Spectrum, 56(1), 39–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002039720963287
Muggeridge, H., & Doná, G. (2006). Back home? Refugees’ experiences of their first visit back to their country of origin. Journal of Refugee Studies, 19(4), 415–432. https://doi.org/10.1093/refuge/fel020
Poole, A. (2013). Ransoms, remittances, and refugees: The gatekeeper state in Eritrea. Africa Today, 60(2), 67–82. https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.60.2.67
Riggan, J. (2013a). Imagining emigration: Debating national duty in Eritrean classrooms. Africa Today, 60(2), 85–106. https://doi.org/10.2979/africatoday.60.2.85
Riggan, J. (2013b). “It seemed like a punishment”: Teacher transfers, hollow nationalism, and the intimate state in Eritrea. American Ethnologist, 40(4), 749–763. https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12052
Riggan, J. (2016). The struggling state. Temple University Press.
Sayad, A. (1999). La double absence. Des illusions de l’émigré aux souffrances de l’immigré. Le Seuil.
Steputat, F. (2004). Dynamics of return and sustainable reintegration in a “mobile livelihoods” perspective (DIIS Working Paper). https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/84509/1/DIIS2004-10.pdf
Stokke, K. (2017). Politics of citizenship: Towards an analytical framework. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift—Norwegian Journal of Geography, 71(4), 193–207. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2017.1369454
SwissInfo. (2018, December 12). Swiss change policy for returning refugees. https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/migration_swiss-change-policy-for-returning-refugees/44613688
Takahashi, S. (1997). The UNHCR Handbook on Voluntary Repatriation: The emphasis of return over protection. International Journal of Refugee Law, 9(4), 593–612. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/9.4.593
Tesfagiorgis, P. (1998). The challenge of reintegration into Africa: The case of Eritrea. Eritrea Profile, 5(7).
United Nations. (2021, January 14). Ethiopia: Safe access and swift action needed for refugees in Tigray. UN News. https://news.un.org/en/story/2021/01/1082162
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (n.d.). Refugee data finder. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/download/?url=Kj77yX
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2018, June 25). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2017. https://www.unhcr.org/5b27be547.pdf
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2020, December 1). Humanitarian access urgently needed to reach civilians, Eritrean refugees in Tigray. UNHCR Briefing Notes. https://www.unhcr.org/news/briefing/2020/12/5fc60e414/humanitarian-access-urgently-needed-reach-civilians-eritrean-refugees-tigray.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2021a, January 14). Statement attributable to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees Filippo Grandi on the situation of Eritrean refugees in Ethiopia’s Tigray region [Press release]. https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/press/2021/1/600052064/statement-attributable-un-high-commissioner-refugees-filippo-grandi-situation.html
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2021b, January 19). UNHCR finds dire need in Eritrean refugee camps cut off in Tigray conflict. UNHCR Briefing Notes. https://www.unhcr.org/uk/news/briefing/2021/1/6006a31a4/unhcr-finds-dire-need-eritrean-refugee-camps-cut-tigray-conflict.html
United Nations General Assembly. (2015, June 4). Report of the commission of inquiry on human rights in Eritrea (A/HRC/29/42). United Nations Human Rights Council. https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/hrc/coieritrea/pages/reportcoieritrea.aspx
Van Hear, N. (2003). From durable solution to transnational relations: Home and exile among refugee diasporas (UNHCR New Issues in Refugee Research Working Paper Series No. 83). http://www.unhcr.org/3e71f8984.html
Vertovec, S. (2009). Transnationalism. Routledge.
Walks, F. (2018). “Every corner tells a story”: Using neighbourhood walks and GPS to understand children’s sense of place. In S. Kleinknecht, L. van den Scott, & C. Sanders (Eds.), The craft of qualitative research: A handbook (pp. 232–237). Canadian Scholars.
Warner, D. (1994). Voluntary repatriation and the meaning of return to home: A critique of liberal mathematics. Journal of Refugee Studies, 7(2–3), 160–174. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/7.2-3.160
Woldemikael, T. M. (2018). Conclusion: Eritrea’s state of exception and its broken mirror. In T. Woldemikael (Ed.), Postliberation Eritrea (pp. 358–372). Indiana University Press.
Téléchargements
Publié-e
Comment citer
Numéro
Rubrique
Licence
© Georgia Cole, Milena Belloni 2022
Cette œuvre est sous licence Creative Commons Attribution - Pas d'Utilisation Commerciale 4.0 International.
Les auteurs qui publient dans Refuge conservent le droit d’auteur associé à leur œuvre, et octroient au public une licence Creative Commons Attribution - Utilisation non commerciale 4.0 International. La licence permet l’utilisation, la reproduction et l’adaptation du matériel avec attribution par tous moyens et sous tous formats pour des fins non commerciales. Pour des informations générales sur les licences Creative Commons, visitez le site Creative Commons. Pour la licence CC BY-NC 4.0, consultez le résumé lisible par l'homme.
