Fear of Crime and Anti-Refugee Sentiments: Evidence from Canada
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.25071/1920-7336.41297Keywords:
fear of crime, refugees, prejudice, CanadaAbstract
Many states have witnessed growing xenophobia and hostility towards refugees alongside the framing of refugees as a serious security or criminal threat in public discourse. Making use of an original cross-national survey of adults in Canada, this article explores the link between fear of crime and negative views of refugees. Its results reveal that even after controlling for alternative explanations, people with more fear of crime are significantly more likely to express anti-refugee sentiments. These results have implications for understanding ongoing challenges in maintaining domestic support for refugee protection and the importance of dispelling myths that refugees are sources of criminality.
Metrics
References
Akrami, N., Ekehammar, B., & Araya, T. (2000). Classical and modern racial prejudice: A study of attitudes toward immigrants in Sweden. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200007/08)30:4%3C521::AID-EJSP5%3E3.0.CO;2-N DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200007/08)30:4<521::AID-EJSP5>3.0.CO;2-N
Amuedo-Dorantes, C., Bansak, C., & Pozo, S. (2021). Refugee admissions and public safety: Are refugee settlement areas more prone to crime? International Migration Review, 55(1), 135–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918320920192 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0197918320920192
Ansolabehere, S., & Schaffner, B. (2014). Does survey mode still matter? Findings from a 2010 multi-mode comparison. Political Analysis, 22(3), 285–303. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24573071 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt025
Atak, I., & Simeon, J. C. (Eds.). (2018). The criminalization of migration: Context and consequences. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv941wq2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773555631
Baker, R., Brick, M., Bates, N., Battaglia, M., Couper, M., Dever, J., Gile, K., & Tourangeau, R. (2013). Summary report of the AAPOR Task Force on non-probability sampling. Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology, 1(2), 90–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/jssam/smt008 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jssam/smt008
Banting, K. G. (2010). Is there a progressive’s dilemma in Canada? Immigration, multiculturalism and the welfare state. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 43(4), 797–820. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40983555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423910000983
Beers, D. J. (2020). The end of resettlement? US refugee policy in the age of Trump. Social Sciences, 9(8), Article 129. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9080129 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9080129
Billings, P. (2019). Crimmigration in Australia. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9093-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9093-7
Bilodeau, A., Turgeon, L., & Karako, E. (2012). Small worlds of diversity: Views toward immigration and racial minorities in Canadian provinces. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 45(3), 579–605. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23321000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423912000728
Boateng, F .D., McCann, W. S., Chenane, J. L., & Pryce, D. K. (2021). Perception of immigrants in Europe: A multilevel assessment of macrolevel conditions. Social Science Quarterly, 102(1), 209–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12888 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.12888
Boateng, F. D., Pryce, D. K., & Chenane, J. L. (2021). I may be an immigrant, but I am not a criminal: Examining the association between the presence of immigrants and crime rates in Europe. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 22, 1105–1124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-020-00790-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-020-00790-1
Box, S., Hale, C., & Andrews, G. (1988). Explaining fear of crime. The British Journal of Criminology, 28(3), 340–356. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047733 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a047733
Breton, C., Cutler, F., Lachance, S., & Mierke-Zatwarnicki, A. (2017). Telephone versus online survey modes for election studies: Comparing Canadian public opinion and vote choice in the 2015 federal election. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 50(4), 1005–1036. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423917000610 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423917000610
Bucerius, S. M. (2011). Immigrants and crime. In M. Tonry (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of crime and criminal justice (pp. 385–419). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395082.013.0013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195395082.013.0013
Burns, P., & Gimpel, J. G. (2000). Economic insecurity, prejudicial stereotypes, and public opinion on immigration policy. Political Science Quarterly, 115(2), 201–225. https://doi.org/10.2307/2657900 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2657900
Bytzek, E., & Bieber, I. (2016). Does survey mode matter for studying electoral behaviour? Evidence from the 2009 German longitudinal election study. Electoral Studies, 43, 41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.04.007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.04.007
Chimni, B. S. (1993). The meaning of words and the role of UNHCR in voluntary repatriation. International Journal of Refugee Law, 5(3), 442–460. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/5.3.442 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/5.3.442
Chimni, B. S. (2004). From resettlement to involuntary repatriation: Towards a critical history of durable solutions to refugee problems. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 23(3), 55–73. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45053831 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/rsq/23.3.55
Citrin, J., Green, D. P., Muste, C., & Wong, C. (1997). Public opinion toward immigration reform: The role of economic motivations. The Journal of Politics, 59(3), 858–881. https://doi.org/10.2307/2998640 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2998640
Ceobanu, A. M., & Escandell, X. (2010). Comparative analyses of public attitudes toward immigrants and immigration using multinational survey data: A review of theories and research. Annual Review of Sociology, 36(1), 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102651 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102651
Curtin, R., Presser, S., & Singer, E. (2005). Changes in telephone survey nonresponse over the past quarter century. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69(1), 87–98. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfi002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfi002
De Coninck, D. (2022). Fear of terrorism and attitudes toward refugees: An empirical test of group threat theory. Crime & Delinquency, 68(4), 550–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128720981898 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128720981898
De Coninck, D., Duque, M., Schwartz, S. J., Matthijs, K., Van Bavel, J., & d’Haenens, L. (2022). Applying the CARIN criteria to migrant settlement: Cross-national validation of the migrant deservingness scale. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2022.2161686 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15562948.2022.2161686
Esses, V. M., Medianu, S., & Lawson, A. S. (2013). Uncertainty, threat, and the role of the media in promoting the dehumanization of immigrants and refugees. Journal of Social Issues, 69(3), 518–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12027
Environics Institute for Survey Research. (2018a, April). Canada’s world survey 2018: Final report. https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/canada's-world-2018-survey/canada's-world-survey-2018---final-report.pdf?sfvrsn=17208306_2
Environics Institute for Survey Research. (2018b, November 19). Canadian public opinion about immigration, refugees and the USA. https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/focus-canada-fall-2018---final-report.pdf?sfvrsn=fe91cb12_0
Environics Institute for Survey Research. (2021, October). Canadian public opinion about immigration and refugees: Final report. https://www.environicsinstitute.org/docs/default-source/project-documents/focus-canada-fall-2021/focus-canada-fall-2021---canadian-public-opinion-about-immigration-refugees---final-report.pdf?sfvrsn=977f51d4_2
European Commission. (2020, December 17). Private sponsorship for integration: Building a European model. https://ec.europa.eu/migrant-integration/library-document/private-sponsorship-integration-building-european-model_en
Farris, E. M., & Silber Mohamed, H. (2018). Picturing immigration: How the media criminalizes immigrants. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 6(4), 814–824. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1484375 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2018.1484375
Feltes, T., List, K., & Bertamini, M. (2018). More refugees, more offenders, more crime? Critical comments with data from Germany. In H. Kury & S. Redo (Eds.), Refugees and migrants in law and policy (pp. 599–624). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72159-0_26 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72159-0_26
Frey, A. (2020). “Cologne changed everything”—The effect of threatening events. European Sociological Review, 36(5), 684–699. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa007 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcaa007
Gagnon, A., & Larios, L. (2021). The politicization of immigration and integration at the subnational level: Electoral campaigns in Ontario and Quebec. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 54(3), 696–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423921000469 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423921000469
Garcea, J., & Kikulwe, D. (2019). The liberal plan for resettling Syrian refugees in Canada: The justificatory narrative and counter-narrative. Canadian Ethnic Studies, 51(2), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2019.0012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/ces.2019.0012
Garcia Hernandez, C. (2015). Crimmigration law. American Bar Association.
Garcia Hernandez, C. (2017). What is crimmigration law? Insights on Law and Society, 17(3), 22–25. http://www.antoniocasella.eu/nume/Crimmigration.law_spring17.pdf
Gonsalkorale, K., Sherman, J. W., & Klauer, K. C. (2009). Aging and prejudice: Diminished regulation of automatic race bias among older adults. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(2), 410–414. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.11.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.11.004
Gravelle, T. B. (2016). Party identification, contact, contexts and public attitudes toward illegal immigration. Public Opinion Quarterly, 80(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfv054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfv054
Gravelle, T. B. (2018). Partisanship, local context, group threat, and Canadian attitudes towards immigration and refugee policy. Migration Studies, 6(3), 448–467. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnx058 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnx058
Hainmueller, J., & Hopkins, D. J. (2014). Public attitudes toward immigration. Annual Review of Political Science, 17, 225–249. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-102512-194818 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-102512-194818
Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4(2), 79–150. https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/026975809600400201
Hanes, E., & Machin, S. (2014). Hate crime in the wake of terror attacks: Evidence from 7/7 and 9/11. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 30(3), 247–267. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214536665 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986214536665
Harell, A., Soroka, S., Iyengar, S., & Valentino, N. (2012) The impact of economic and cultural cues on support for immigration in Canada and the United States. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 45(3), 499–530. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423912000698 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423912000698
Haw, A. L. (2020). “Fitting in” and “giving back”: Constructions of Australia’s “ideal” refugee through discourses of assimilation and market citizenship. Journal of Refugee Studies, 34(3), 3164–3183. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feaa073 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feaa073
Haynes, A., Devereux, E., & Breen, M. (2004). A cosy consensus on deviant discourse: How the refugee and asylum seeker meta-narrative has endorsed an interpretive crisis in relation to the transnational politics of the world’s displaced persons (University of Limerick Department of Sociology working paper no. WP2004-03). https://hdl.handle.net/10344/3632
Hermanni, H., & Neumann, R. (2019). “Refugees welcome?” The interplay between perceived threats and general concerns on the acceptance of refugees—A factorial survey approach in Germany. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(3), 349–374. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1459183 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1459183
Hestermann, T. (2018). Refugees and migrants in the media: The black hole. In H. Kury & S. Redo (Eds.), Refugees and migrants in law and policy (pp. 125–136). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72159-0_5 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72159-0_5
Hill, B. (2019, September 20). Just 0.3% of irregular migrants in Canada found to have serious criminal past. Global News. https://globalnews.ca/news/5918639/irregular-migrants-criminal-past/
Hodson, G., Hogg, S. M., & MacInnis, C. C. (2009). The role of “dark personalities” (narcissism, machiavellianism, psychopathy), Big Five personality factors, and ideology in explaining prejudice. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(4), 686–690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.005 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.02.005
Keely, C. B. (2001). The international refugee regime(s): The end of the Cold War matters. International Migration Review, 35(1), 303–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00016.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2001.tb00016.x
Khaki, A., Srivastava, V., & Clark-Kazak, C. (2024, April 11). Asylum seekers from Gaza and Sudan face prejudiced policies and bureaucratic hurdles. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/asylum-seekers-from-gaza-and-sudan-face-prejudiced-policies-and-bureaucratic-hurdles-227508
Kivimäki, T., & Nicholson, L. (2021). Refugee crisis, valuation of life, and violent crime. Journal of Refugee Studies, 34(2), 1747–1765. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feaa072 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/feaa072
Klocker, N., & Dunn, K. M. (2003). Who’s driving the asylum debate? Newspaper and government representations of asylum seekers. Media International Australia, 109(1), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X0310900109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1329878X0310900109
Kosho, J. (2016). Media influence on public opinion attitudes toward the migration crisis. International Journal of Scientific & Technology Research, 5(5), 86–91. https://www.ijstr.org/final-print/may2016/Media-Influence-On-Public-Opinion-Attitudes-Toward-The-Migration-Crisis.pdf
Krause, U., & Schmidt, H. (2020). Refugees as actors? Critical reflections on global refugee policies on self-reliance and resilience. Journal of Refugee Studies, 33(1), 22–41. https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez059 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jrs/fez059
Landmann, H., Gaschler, R., & Rohmann, A. (2019). What is threatening about refugees? Identifying different types of threat and their association with emotional responses and attitudes towards refugee migration. European Journal of Social Psychology, 49, 1401–1420. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2593 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2593
Lavrakas, P., Shuttles, C., Steeh, C., & Fienberg, H. (2007). The state of surveying cell phone numbers in the United States. Public Opinion Quarterly, 71(5), 840–854. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm054 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfm054
Lawlor, A., & Tolley, E. (2017). Deciding who’s legitimate: News media framing of immigrants and refugees. International Journal of Communication, 11, 967–991. https://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/6273
Lawlor, A., & Paquet, M. (2022). Deservingness in context: Perspectives toward refugees and asylum seekers in Canada. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 48(15), 3484–3504. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2021.1994376 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2021.1994376
Lee, S. E., & Dahinten, V. S. (2021). Using dominance analysis to identify the most important dimensions of safety culture for predicting patient safety. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(15), Article 7746. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157746 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157746
Liska, A., Lawrence, J., & Sanchirico, A. (1982). Fear of crime as a social fact. Social Forces, 60(3), 760–770. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/60.3.760 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/60.3.760
Loescher, G., & Scanlan, J. A. (1998). Calculated kindness: Refugees and America’s half-open door, 1945–present. Simon and Schuster.
Mannik, L. (2012). Public and private photographs of refugees: The problem of representation. Visual Studies, 27(3), 262–276. https://doi.org/10.1080/1472586X.2012.717747 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1472586X.2012.717747
Masterson, D., & Yasenov, V. (2021). Does halting refugee resettlement reduce crime? Evidence from the US refugee ban. American Political Science Review, 115(3), 1066–1073. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000150 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000150
McDonnell, T. M., & Merton, V. H. (2019). Enter at your own risk: Criminalizing asylum-seekers. Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 51(1), 1–99. https://hrlr.law.columbia.edu/hrlr/enter-at-your-own-risk-criminalizing-asylum-seekers/
McKeever, A. (2020). Immigration policy and right-wing populism in western Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41761-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41761-1
Medeiros, M., & Gravelle, T. (2023). Pandemic populism: Explaining support for the People’s Party of Canada in the 2021 federal election. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 56(2), 413–434. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000842392300015X DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S000842392300015X
Mertus, J. (1998). The state and the post–Cold War refugee regime: New models, new questions. International Journal of Refugee Law, 10(3), 321–348. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/10.3.321 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/10.3.321
Milner, J. (2021). Canada and the UN Global Compact on Refugees: A case study of influence in the global refugee regime. In Y. Samy & H. Duncan (Eds.), International affairs and Canadian migration policy (pp. 41–63). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46754-8_3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46754-8_3
Molloy, M. J., Duschinsky, P., Jensen, K. F., & Shalka, R. J. (2017). Running on empty: Canada and the Indochinese refugees, 1975–1980. McGill-Queen’s University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773550636
Nielsen, M. H., Frederiksen, M., & Larsen, C. A. (2020). Deservingness put into practice: Constructing the (un)deservingness of migrants in four European countries. The British Journal of Sociology, 71(1), 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12721 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12721
Newman, B. J, Hartman, T. K., Lown, P. L., & Feldman, S. (2015). Easing the heavy hand: Humanitarian concern, empathy, and opinion on immigration. British Journal of Political Science, 45(3), 583–607. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123413000410 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123413000410
Newman, B. J., Hartman, T. K., & Taber, C. S. (2012). Foreign language exposure, cultural threat, and opposition to immigration. Political Psychology, 33, 635–657. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00904.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00904.x
Ng, I., Choi, S. F., & Chan, A. L. (2019). Framing the issue of asylum seekers and refugees for tougher refugee policy—A study of the media’s portrayal in post-colonial Hong Kong. International Migration & Integration, 20, 593–617. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-018-0624-7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-018-0624-7
Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS survival manual (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Pardy, K. (2023, February 27). Why are some refugees more welcome in Canada than others? Policy Options. https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/february-2023/ukrainian-afghan-refugees/
Parkin, J. (2013, October 23). The criminalisation of migration in Europe: A state-of-the-art of the academic literature and research. Centre for European Policy Studies. https://www.ceps.eu/ceps-publications/criminalisation-migration-europe-state-art-academic-literature-and-research/
Paquet, M., & Lawlor, A. (2022). Numbers and images: Representations of immigration and public attitudes about immigration in Canada. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 55(4), 827–851. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423922000786 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423922000786
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 751–783. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751
Pickering, S. (2008). The new criminals: Refugees and asylum seekers. In T. Anthony & C. Cunneen (Eds.), The critical criminology companion (pp. 169–179). Hawkins Press.
Pierce, S., & Bolter, J. (2020, July). Dismantling and reconstructing the US immigration system. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/us-immigration-system-changes-trump-presidency
Pierce, S., Bolter, J., & Selee, A. (2018, July). US immigration policy under Trump: Deep changes and lasting impacts. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/research/us-immigration-policy-trump-deep-changes-impacts
Pituch, K., & Stevens, J. (2016). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203843130 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315814919
Pruysers, S. (2020). Personality and attitudes towards refugees: Evidence from Canada. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 33(4), 538–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2020.1824187. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2020.1824187
Pruysers, S., & Schminke, T. G. (2024). Prejudicial populists? Evidence from Canada. In K. Banerjee & C. Smith (Eds.), Migration governance in North America: Policy, politics, and community (pp. 320–344). McGill-Queens University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.15136112.17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.15136112.17
Pupavac, V. (2008). Refugee advocacy, traumatic representations and political disenchantment. Government and Opposition, 43(2), 270–292. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2008.00255.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2008.00255.x
Reynolds, J., & Hyndman, J. (2021). Shifting grounds of asylum in Canadian public discourse and policy. In V. Nguyen & T. Phu (Eds.), Refugee states: Critical refugee studies in Canada (pp. 23–45). University of Toronto Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctv2sm3b5v DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487541392-003
Rose, P. I. (1993). Tempest-tost: Exile, ethnicity, and the politics of rescue. Sociological Forum, 8(1), 5–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112328 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112328
Sala, E., & Lillini, R. (2015). Undercoverage bias in telephone surveys in Europe: The Italian case. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 29(1), 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edv033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edv033
Scheve, K. F., & Slaughter, M. J. (2001). Labor market competition and individual preferences over immigration policy. Review of Economics and Statistics, 83(1), 133–145. https://doi.org/10.1162/003465301750160108 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/003465301750160108
Sibley, C. G., & Duckitt, J. (2008).Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12(3), 248–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319226 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319226
Silber Mohamed, H., & Farris, E. M. (2020). “Bad hombres”? An examination of identities in US media coverage of immigration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 46(1), 158–176. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1574221 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1574221
Stephan, W. G., Ybarra, O., & Rios, K. (2015). Intergroup threat theory. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (2nd ed., pp. 255–278). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203361993 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203361993
Stephenson, L., & Crête, J. (2011). Studying political behavior: A comparison of internet and telephone surveys. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 23(1), 24–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edq025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edq025
Stevens, J. (1996). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (3rd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
Stumpf, J. (2014). Crimmigration: Encountering the leviathan. In S. Pickering & J. Ham (Eds.), The Routledge handbook on crime and international migration (pp. 237–250). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203385562 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203385562-16
Trudeau, J. (2018, August 18). Minister of Border Security and Organized Crime Reduction mandate letter. Office of the Prime Minister. https://pm.gc.ca/en/mandate-letters/2018/08/28/archived-minister-border-security-and-organized-crime-reduction-mandate
UNHCR. (2023, June 14). Global trends: Forced displacement in 2022. https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/global-trends-report-2022.pdf
van Dijk, T. A. (2015). Racism and the press. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315682662 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315682662
Van Haren, I. (2021, July 9). Canada’s private sponsorship model represents a complementary pathway for refugee resettlement. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/canada-private-sponsorship-model-refugee-resettlement DOI: https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/aqw4m
Walaardt, T. (2013). New refugees? Manly war resisters prevent an asylum crisis in the Netherlands, 1968–1973. In M. Schrover & D. M. Molony (Eds.), Gender, migration and categorisation: Making distinctions between migrants in Western countries, 1945–2010 (pp. 75–104). Amsterdam University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wp7px.5
Wallace, R. (2018). Contextualizing the crisis: The framing of Syrian refugees in Canadian print media. Canadian Journal of Political Science, 51(2), 207–231. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423917001482 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423917001482
The White House. (2021, February 4). Executive order on rebuilding and enhancing programs to resettle refugees and planning for the impact of climate change on migration. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/02/04/executive-order-on-rebuilding-and-enhancing-programs-to-resettle-refugees-and-planning-for-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-migration/
Wike, R., Stokes, B., & Simmons, K. (2016). Europeans fear wave of refugees will mean more terrorism, fewer jobs. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/07/11/europeans-fear-wave-of-refugees-will-mean-more-terrorism-fewer-jobs/
Wilkes, R., Guppy, N., & Farris, L. (2008). “No thanks, we’re full”: Individual characteristics, national context, and changing attitudes toward immigration. International Migration Review, 42(2), 302–329. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2008.00126.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2008.00126.x
Williams, I., Gravelle, T. B., & Klar, S. (2022). The competing influence of policy content and political cues: Cross-border evidence from the United States and Canada. American Political Science Review, 116(4), 1375–1388. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422000351 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055422000351
Wilson, J. Q. (1975). Thinking about crime. Basic Books.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Scott Pruysers, Kiran Banerjee, Julie Blais
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Refuge authors retain the copyright over their work, and license it to the general public under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial License International (CC BY-NC 4.0). This license allows for non-commercial use, reproduction and adaption of the material in any medium or format, with proper attribution. For general information on Creative Commons licences, visit the Creative Commons site. For the CC BY-NC 4.0 license, review the human readable summary.
